Swadesh lists

Swadesh lists are a tool of glottochronology, proposed by Maurice Swadesh in 1950. They are lists of prescribed items of basic vocabulary (variously featuring 100, 200 or 207 items) in two or more related languages. The closeness of the relationship of the languages is suggested to be roughly proportional to the number of cognate words present in the list. The reason that a fixed set of concepts is used, rather than a list of arbitrary words, is that the basic vocabulary learned during early childhood is assumed to change very slowly over time. Note that the task of counting the number of cognate words in the list is far from trivial, and may be subjected to dispute, because cognates do not necessarily look similar, and recognition of cognates presupposes knowledge of the sound laws of the respective languages. Even in cases where the number of cognates is undisputed, use of Swadesh lists for dating is disputed, because of the underlying assumption that the rate of replacement of basic vocabulary is constant over long periods of time. While Swadesh lists are a useful tool to get a rough idea, mainstream historical linguistics is usually very sceptical about claims of relatedness based on Swadesh lists exclusively.

The use of Swadesh lists in glottochronology was most popular during the 1960s and 1970s, after which enthusiasm waned and the discussion of the method's merit became emotional, leading to a temporary demise of the method. Refinements since the early 1970s include the incorporation of a geographical dimension into the equations, accounting for borrowing.

Whilst the use of Swadesh lists for absolute dating remains controversial, they have gained popularity in the field of translation in defining core concepts that are universal to all human languages.

Swadesh lists for several languages follow [the set of lists will be updated progressively]. The basic words (in English) are followed by words in the respective language on the next line, then by a phonetic transcription where necessary.

Athonite

Athonite Swadesh List

Kerno

I	you	we	this	that	who?	what?	no(t)	all	a lot
ieo	ty	nus	c' yst	c' ell	que	que	ne	tots	mult
[Z@]	[ti]	[nEs]	[sIst]	[sEl]	[ke]	[ke]	[nE]	[tot]	[mujt]
one	two	big	long	zmall	human	man	woman	vish	bird
yen	daw	magan	llong	becks	om	gouirs	gouedna	peskis	tenós
[ZEn]	[daw]	[ma3Vn]	[loN]	[bEk]	[Vm]	[wejr]	[wEna]	[pEskIs]	[tEnos]
dog	louse	tree	zeed	leaf	root	(tree-)bark	skin	meat	blood
qy	lous	bellets	semen	folea	razecks	qerts	rousquès	caró	sancoues
[ku]	[lus]	[bElEts]	[sEmEn]	[folE@]	[raDEk]	[kert]	[ruskEs]	[karo]	[saNkwEs]
bone	(body-)vat	egg	head	horn	tail	veather	hair	ear	eye
ossès	grasa	ous	pednis	cornows	codès	pedna	cabels	orels	ochels
[osEs]	[gras@]	[us]	[pEnIs]	[kornow]	[kodEs]	[pEn@]	[kavEjs]	[orEjs]	[oxEjs]
nose	mouth	tooth	tongue	(finger-)nail	leg	knee	hand	stomach	neck
nasó	bucca	dentis	tengets	angouens	cambis	geonó	lams	geoelems	guthelucks
[naso]	[buk@]	[dEnt]	[tENgEt]	[aNgwEn]	[kambIs]	[ZEno]	[lam]	[ZElEm]	[guTEluk]
breast	heart	liver	drink	eat	bite	zee	hear	know	zleep
pocín	cors	íceneors	beveoir	comezer	morder	gouider	other	saber	dormir
[posin]	[kors]	[isEnEr]	[bEvoejr]	[komEDer]	[morDer]	[wiDer]	[oTer]	[saver]	[dormir]
die	kill	zwim	vly	go	come	lie (down)	sit	stand	give
morer	godnether	nazar	goueolar	ir	gouednir	reclinar	seder	ystar	dar
[morer]	[gonETer]	[naDar]	[wolar]	[ir]	[wEnir]	[reklinar]	[sEDer]	[istar]	[dar]
zay	Zun	Moon	star	water	rain	stone	zand	earth	cloud
far	Sulis	Reoa	rezlant	acoua	llougouea	acona	cravella	Tira	nevoels
[far]	[sulIs]	[ru@]	[rEDlant]	[akw@]	[plowE@]	[akon@]	[kravEl@]	[tir@]	[nEvol]
smoke	vire	ash	burn	road	mountain	red	green	yellow	white
fuma	tanis	pumès	ardever	ystraza	crags	rudd	gouereds	llawis	blanck
[fum@]	[tanIs]	[pumEs]	[ardEver]	[istraDa]	[krag]	[ruD]	[werED]	[flawIs]	[blank]
black	night	hot	cold	vull	new	good	round	dry	name
dufs	nock	calez	frigets	llen	new	dack	rotund	secca	nom
[duf]	[nox]	[kalED]	[friZEt]	[plan]	[nuw]	[dax]	[rotund]	[sEk@]	[nVm]

Jovian

I	you	we	this	that	who?	what?	no(t)	all	a lot
eo	tu	nos	id-ic	id-il	ci?	cod?	nau	tozu	muodu
[e@]	[tu]	[nAs]	[i'diC]	[i'dil]	[ki]	[kA]	[no]	[to:z]	[mu@d]
one	two	big	long	small	human	man	woman	fish	bird
une	duo	mangu	longu	puolu	hoeme	omme	feima	pix	aeve
[u:n]	[du@]	[maNg]	[lANg]	[pu@l]	[hAjm]	[Am]	[fejm]	[piS]	[ajv]
dog	louse	tree	seed	leaf	root	(tree-)bark	skin	meat	blood
caene	peize	albur	seime	foelun	raege	coerce	cuede	carne	soenge
[kajn]	[pejz]	['alb@r]	[sejm]	['fAjl@]	[rajg]	[kark]	[ky@d]	[karn]	[saNg]
bone	(body-)fat	egg	head	horn	tail	feather	hair	ear	eye
osse	fette	ouvun	caefte	corne	cauza	pluwa	pfiolu	ore	ougul
[As]	[fet]	['owv@]	[kEft]	[kArn]	[kawz]	[plu:v]	[pfi@l]	[o:r]	[owg@l]
nose	mouth	tooth	tongue	(finger-)nail	leg	knee	hand	stomach	neck
nasu	ouscul	dinde	lionga	ungul	baene	jene	mane	auvu	coulun
[na:z]	['uSk@l]	[dind]	[liNg]	['uNg@l]	[bajn]	[je:n]	[ma:n]	[awv]	['kowl@]
breast	heart	liver	to drink	to eat	to bite	to see	to hear	to know	to sleep
sinu	corde	iogur	biver	esser	mordire	uezire	auzire	xire	dorwire
[si:n]	[kArd]	['i@g@r]	['bi:v@r]	['ess@r]	[mAr'di:r]	[y'zi:r]	[o'zi:r]	[Si:r]	[dAr'vi:r]
to die	to kill	to swim	to fly	to go	to come	to lie (down)	to sit	to stand	to give
morire	mactare	nadare	volare	vare	venire	cueftare	sezire	tsare	dare
[mA'ri:r]	[m@x'ta:r]	[n@'da:r]	[vA'la:r]	[va:r]	[ve'ni:r]	[kyf'ta:r]	[se'zi:r]	[tsa:r]	[da:r]
to say	sun	moon	star	water	rain	stone	sand	earth	cloud
diher	sole	luna	tseola	auga	plueve	laefte	rena	terra	nueve
[di:r]	[so:l]	[lu:n]	[tse@l]	[awg]	[ply@v]	[lEft]	[re:n]	[tEr]	[ny@v]
smoke	fire	ash	to burn	road	mountain	red	green	yellow	white
fuwu	inge	hinner	ardire	vija	monde	ruoru	uerde	luedsu	aubu
[fu:v]	[iNg]	['hinn@r]	[@r'di:r]	[vi:]	[mAnd]	[ru@r]	[yrd]	[ly@dz]	[awb]
black	night	hot	cold	full	new	good	round	dry	name
ader	noc	caedu	frizu	plenu	nouvu	bonu	roundu	siccu	noeme
[a:d@r]	[nAx]	[kajd]	[fri:z]	[ple:n]	[nowv]	[bo:n]	[rund]	[sik]	[nAjm]

Xliponian

I	you	we	this	that	who?	what?	no(t)	all	a lot
eco	çu	nos	ete	ate	hi?	hu?	non	çot	mux
[‘eko]	[tsu]	[nos]	['ete]	['ate]	[hi]	[hu]	[non]	[tsot]	[muʃ]
one	two	big	long	small	human	man	woman	fish	bird
on	tou	maun	lonc	eqic	om	om	vemma	fiq	aib
[on]	[tow]	[mawn]	[loŋk]	[e’tʃik]	[om]	[om]	[‘vem:a]	[fitʃ]	[ajb]
dog	louse	tree	seed	leaf	root	(tree-)bark	skin	meat	blood
hain	fetixlo	arpor	semm	voil	raqi	horçeq	huiç	haur	sainc
[hajn]	[fe’tiʃlo]	[ar’por]	[sem:]	[vojl]	[‘ratʃi]	[hor’tsetʃ]	[hujts]	[hawr]	[sajnk]
bone	(body-)fat	egg	head	horn	tail	feather	hair	ear	eye
oq	atef	oub	hauf	hourn	hauta	fena	hirn	auri	ouhul
[otʃ]	[a’tef]	[owb]	[hawf]	[howrn]	[‘hawta]	[‘fena]	[hirn]	[‘awri]	[ow’hul]
nose	mouth	tooth	tongue	(finger-)nail	leg	knee	hand	stomach	neck
naus	puca	teint	lincua	unca	hurs	ceun	main	bentr	houl
[naws]	[’puka]	[tejnt]	[lin’kua]	[‘uŋka]	[hurs]	[kewn]	[majn]	[bentr]	[howl]
breast	heart	liver	to drink	to eat	to bite	to see	to hear	to know	to sleep
feq	hor	iecro	piper	mauncar	moirer	biter	auter	qier	tormer
[fɛtʃ]	[hor]	[i’ekro]	[pi’per]	[mauŋ’kar]	[moj’rer]	[bi’ter]	[aw’ter]	[tʃi’er]	[tor’mer]
to die	to kill	to swim	to fly	to go	to come	to lie (down)	to sit	to stand	to give
morer	oqider	naçar	bolar	eçir	bener	humper	asiter	star	tonar
[mo’rer]	[otʃi’der]	[na’tsar]	[bo’lar]	[e’tʃir]	[be’ner]	[hum’per]	[asi’ter]	[star]	[to’nar]
to say	sun	moon	star	water	rain	stone	sand	earth	cloud
tiqer	soil	luna	qela	acua	xluib	saq	aren	teir	nupe
[ti’tʃer]	[sojl]	[‘luna]	[‘tʃela]	[a’kua]	[ʃlujb]	[satʃ]	[a’ren]	[tejr]	[‘nupe]
smoke	fire	ash	to burn	road	mountain	red	green	yellow	white
vum	inci	hin	arter	bia	monn	ruper	biret	valb	alp
[vum]	[‘iŋki]	[hin]	[ar’ter]	[‘bia]	[mon:]	[ru’per]	[bi’ret]	[valb]	[alp]
black	night	hot	cold	full	new	good	round	dry	name
nicer	noq	halit	virc	xleun	noub	poun	roçunn	siq	noim
[ni’ker]	[notʃ]	[ha’lit]	[virk]	[ʃlewn]	[nowb]	[pown]	[ro’tsun:]	[sitʃ]	[nojm]

Croatian

I	you	we	this	that	who?	what?	no(t)	all	a lot
ja	ty	my	éto	to	tko	kaj	ne	sve	mnouhy
[ja]	[ti]	[mi]	[ˈeːto]	[to]	[tko]	[kaj]	[ne]	[sv̥e]	[ˈmnoː.ɦi]
one	two	big	long	zmall	human	man	woman	vish	bird
jeden	dva	věliky	dolh	mály	človek	muž	žena	ryba	ptica
[ˈje.den]	[dva]	[ˈvje.ʎĭ.ki]	[dolh]	[ˈmaː.li]	[ˈtʃlo.vek]	[muʒ]	[ˈʒe.na]	[ˈri.ba]	[ˈpci.tsa]
dog	louse	tree	zeed	leaf	root	(tree-)bark	skin	meat	blood
pes	úš	drvo	sěme	list	kořen	kora	kouža	měso	krv
[pes]	[uːʃ]	[ˈdr̩.vo]	[ˈsje.me]	[ʎist]	[ˈko.r̝en]	[ˈko.ra]	[ˈkoː.ʒa]	[ˈmje.so]	[kr̩v]
bone	(body-)vat	egg	head	horn	tail	veather	hair	ear	eye
kost	mást	jajce	hláva	roh	řep	péro	vlasě	ucho	ouko
[kost]	[maːst]	[ˈjaj.tse]	[ˈhlaː.va]	[roh]	[r̝ep]	[ˈpeː.ro]	[ˈvla.sje]	[ˈu.xo]	[ˈoː.ko]
nose	mouth	tooth	tongue	(finger-)nail	leg	knee	hand	stomach	neck
nos	usta	zub	jezyk	noket	noha	kolěno	ruka	želudec	vrat
[nos]	[ˈus.ta]	[zup]	[ˈje.zik]	[ˈno'ket]	[ˈno.ɦa]	[ˈko.ʎe.no]	[ˈru.ka]	[ˈʒe.lu.dets]	[vrat]
breast	heart	liver	drink	eat	bite	zee	hear	know	zleep
prsa	srce	jetra	piti	jesti	hřisti	viďeti	čuti	znáti	spávati
[ˈpr̩.sa]	[ˈsr̩.tse]	[ˈjet.ra]	[ˈpi.ci]	[ˈjes.ci]	[ˈhr̝is.ci]	[ˈvi.ɟe.ci]	[ˈtʃu.ci]	[ˈznaː.ci]	[ˈspaː.va.ci]
die	kill	zwim	vly	go	come	lie (down)	sit	stand	give
umřeti	ubiti	plavati	létěti	iťi	doťi	ležati	sěditi	státi	dáti
[u.ˈmr̝e.ci]	[ˈu.bi.ci]	[ˈpla.va.ci]	[ˈleː.ce.ci]	[ˈi.ci]	[ˈdo.ci]	[ˈle.ʒa.ci]	[ˈsje.ɟi.ci]	[ˈstaː.ci]	[ˈdaː.ci]
zay	Zun	Moon	star	water	rain	stone	zand	earth	cloud
řéťi	solnce	měsec	zvězda	voda	dážd	kámen	pěsek	zemľa	oblak
[ˈr̝eː.ci]	[ˈsoln.tse]	[ˈmje.sets]	[ˈzvjez.da]	[ˈvo.da]	[daːʒd]	[ˈkaː.men]	[ˈpje.sek]	[ˈzem.ʎa]	[ˈob.lak]
smoke	vire	ash	burn	road	mountain	red	green	yellow	white
dym	požar	pepel	hořeti	cesta	planina / hora	crven / rďeč	zelen	žolt	běl
[dim]	[ˈpo.ʒar]	[ˈpe.pel]	[ˈho.r̝e.ci]	[ˈtses.ta]	[ˈpla.ɲi.na] / [ˈho.ra]	[ˈtsr̩.ven] / [ˈr̩.ɟetʃ]	[ˈze.len]	[ʒolt]	[bjel]
black	night	hot	cold	vull	new	good	round	dry	name
crn	nouť	topel	chladen	polen	nov	dober	kruhel	such	íme
[tsr̩n]	[noːc]	[ˈto.pel]	[ˈxla.den]	[ˈpo.len]	[nov]	[ˈdo.ber]	[ˈkru.ɦel]	[sux]	[ˈiː.me]

Izhorian

I	you (sg.)	he	we	this	that	who?	what?	no(t)	all
jaa	ти	jон	ми	гета	сита	ко	шо	не	усе
[ja:]	[ti]	[jon]	[mi]	[hɛtɑ]	[sitɑ]	[ko]	[ʃo]	[nɛ]	[usɛ]
a lot	one	two	big	long	small	human	man	woman	fish
мога	jынна	ва	вэлчæ	доогo	малча	чалвыкка	моожa	жаана	риба
[mohɑ]	[jɤnːɑ]	[vɑ]	[væltʃæ]	[doːho]	[mɑltʃɑ]	[tʃɑlvɤkːɑ]	[moːʒɑ]	[ʒa:nɑ]	[ribɑ]
bird	dog	louse	tree	seed	leaf	root	(tree-)bark	skin	meat
тушка	сабакка	вошша	дырва	семэ	листи	коранна	каара	суккура	мэссэ
[tuʃkɑ]	[sɑbɑkːɑ]	[voʃːɑ]	[dɤrvɑ]	[sɛmæ]	[listi]	[korɑnːɑ]	[kaːrɑ]	[sukːurɑ]	[mæsːæ]
blood	bone	(body-)fat	egg	head	horn	tail	feather	hair	ear
кырва	коста	маска	jаjка	гаава	рого	вости	пэрө	ваасси	вуука
[kɤrvɑ]	[kostɑ]	[mɑskɑ]	[jɑjkɑ]	[haːvɑ]	[roho]	[vosti]	[pærø]	[vaːsːi]	[vuːkɑ]
eye	nose	mouth	tooth	tongue	(finger-)nail	leg	knee	hand	stomach
вока	нисэ	рото	зуба	эзүччэ	ноготта	нага	кыынна	рука	лудокка
[vokɑ]	[nisæ]	[roto]	[zubɑ]	[æzytʃːæ]	[nohotːɑ]	[nɑhɑ]	[kɤːnːɑ]	[rukɑ]	[ludokːɑ]
neck	breast	heart	liver	drink	eat	bite	see	hear	know
шиjэ	руста	шэрццэ	пэчөнэ	пиццэ	jөссэ	кусатта	лэдэттэ	чутта	ведэццэ
[ʃijæ]	[rustɑ]	[ʃærtsːæ]	[pætʃønæ]	[pitsːæ]	[jøsːæ]	[kusɑtːɑ]	[lædætːæ]	[tʃutːɑ]	[vɛdætsːæ]
sleep	die	kill	swim	fly	go	come	lie (down)	sit	stand
паватта	мерттэ	бивэттэ	лаватта	лэтэттэ	иссэ	jэкэттэ	лэжэццэ	шэдеттэ	таjатта
[pɑvɑtːɑ]	[mɛrtːæ]	[bivætːæ]	[lɑvɑtːɑ]	[lætætːæ]	[isːæ]	[jækætːæ]	[læʒætsːæ]	[ʃædɛtːæ]	[tɑjɑtːɑ]
give	say	Sun	Moon	star	water	rain	stone	sand	earth
даватта	казатта	сонцца	месэццэ	зорка	вада	дашта	камынна	пэсөккэ	зэмлэ
[dɑvɑtːɑ]	[kɑzɑtːɑ]	[sontsːɑ]	[mesætsːæ]	[zorkɑ]	[vɑdɑ]	[dɑʃtɑ]	[kɑmɤnːɑ]	[pæsøkːæ]	[zæmlæ]
cloud	smoke	fire	ash	burn	road	mountain	red	green	yellow
воблакка	дыма	агонна	попло	гарытта	дароога	гара	чырвын	зөөнэ	жоотo
[voblɑkːɑ]	[dɤmɑ]	[ɑhonːɑ]	[poplo]	[hɑrɤtːɑ]	[dɑroːhɑ]	[hɑrɑ]	[tʃɤrvɤn]	[zøːnæ]	[ʒoːto]
white	black	night	hot	cold	full	new	good	round	dry
белэ	чорно	ноччи	гарча	коодна	пооно	ново	карша	рукло	суко
[bɛlæ]	[tʃorno]	[notʃːi]	[hɑrtʃɑ]	[koːdnɑ]	[poːno]	[novo]	[kɑrʃɑ]	[ruklo]	[suko]
name	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
jимэ	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
[jimæ]	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-